In recent years standards and regulations have become increasingly important in the agri-food sector. Next to the proliferation of private standards imposed by the agri-food industry and retailers, governments particularly of high income countries have tightened and set new regulations that prescribe product and process requirements. Such requirements do not only address food safety issues but also quality aspects related to societal concerns and stand in close relation to public policy objectives in the interest of producers, consumers and society as a whole. While being domestic affairs, often with international coordination though, standards evolve from regulatory systems for agri-food products, their production and exchange in the domestic market as well as internationally.
Standards and regulations encompass a variety of research topics, and at LEI Wageningen UR one focus is on agri-food standards and regulations in the context of international trade and development. LEI investigates the impact of standards and regulations in trade by taking into account the perspective of producers and consumers and thus captures the costs and benefits in the analysis. While LEI research on standards and regulations in trade is often cross-cutting, the table below outlines the main research areas that LEI is involved at.
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Research focus 1
Trade effect of standards and regulations/WTO issues |
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Key words: quantitative analysis of the trade and further reaching economic effects, WTO SPS/TBT agreement, conformity assessment, market access to foreign markets (non-tariff barriers), market integration through harmonization and mutual recognition |
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Research focus 2
Standards and producers in agri-food supply chains |
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Key words: supply chain, incentive structures in the chain, public, private (industry and retailers) and public-private initiatives, standard design and implementation, exclusion of some producers/market access, compliance likelihood, compliance costs, creation of value, performance indicators, sustainability impact/sustainable development |
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Research focus 3
Standards and consumers/society as a whole |
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Key words: Consumer/societal concerns, foods safety and quality, public good aspects, costs/benefit analysis, risk assessment, willingness to pay |
Overall, LEI Wageningen UR research on standards and regulations in agri-food trade aims to provide insights for policy making and to support the dialogue between policy-makers, the private sector and other stakeholders both in the Netherlands and trading partner countries, particularly developing and transition countries.
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Research focus 1
Trade effect of standards and regulations/WTO issues |
In agri-food trade, standards and regulations prescribe import requirements and are thus considered to be non-tariff measures (NTMs). Standards and regulations differ across countries, and exporters have to satisfy the different requirements of importing countries in order to sell their produce on foreign markets. Standards as import requirements can thus lead to incidences at the border and affect trade volume and value. Since exporters incur additional costs due to the requirements of importing countries, standards and regulations may hamper trade flows between countries, but they may also be trade catalyst and facilitate trade. LEI research engages in the quantitative analysis of the trade and market impact of standards requirements, including conformity assessment procedures. Next to determining the trade effect, LEI investigates on the international coordination, harmonisation and mutual recognition efforts, which aim to reduce and overcome the potentially trade-hampering effect of standards. This includes the analysis of standards and regulations in the context of bi-lateral and the multilateral trade agreements, more specifically the WTO Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT).
On-going projects
Website FP7 NTM Impact
Website EU food quality standards Chile
Publications
Kamphuis, B. M. and T. Verwaart (2008): Import procedures for timber to the European Union; Options for streamlining procedures for legal timber, LEI Rapport 2008-044, Den Haag.
Eaton, D. J. F. and Visser, B. (2007): Transaction costs of tracking and monitoring the flows of genetic resources. In Ruiz Muller, M. and Lapena, I.: A Moving Target: Genetic Resources and Options for Tracking and Monitoring their International Flows, Environmental Policy and Law Paper 67/3, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Switzerland.
Achterbosch, T. J. (2007): Between Safety and Commerce: How Sanitary Measures Affect Global Dairy Trade, Issue Brief 24, International Food & Agricultural Trade Policy Council (IPC), Washington DC.
Eaton, D. J. F., Bourgeois, J. and Achterbosch, T. J. (2006): Product differentiation under the WTO: an analysis of labelling and tariff or tax measures concerning farm animal welfare, LEI Rapport 6.05.11, Den Haag.
Balk-Theuws, L. W., Stallen, M. P. K. and Zhang, X. (2005): Phytosanitary regulations and the import of woody ornamental trees into China, Vensterrapport 40129, Den Haag.
Van Tongeren, F. (2004): Market access - opportunities and risks. International workshop “Policies against hunger III: Liberalisation of agricultural trade - A solution?”, 20-22 October 2004, Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection, Berlin.
Zhang X. (2004): Brief introduction to regulations on food safety in the European Union. Chinese Rural Economy 2004 (4).
Smelt, Anita et al. (2003): Guidelines for Food Safety, SPS and Trade, Report to the World Bank, Wageningen UR.
Roest, J. van der, and Zhang, X. (2003): Legislative and Institutional Framework for the Food Safety Control of Live Animals in China, LEI Rapport 6.03.08, Den Haag.
Achterbosch, T. J. (2002): Food Safety Measures and Developing Countries. LEI Research note, Den Haag.
Buurma, J. S., Boselie, D. M., de Jager, A., Smelt, A. J. and Muller, E. (2002):
Impacts of EU pesticide legislation on fresh food trade between the South and the EU,
Den Haag.
Standards and regulations in trade are more than border measures and have been shaping supply chains in the increasingly integrated and global agri-food markets. Here, private standards by the agri-food industry and retailers play an important role, and LEI research examines the interplay between private, public, private-public and multi-stakeholder standard initiatives in agri-food supply chains. From the producers’ perspective, LEI investigates the incentives to adopt standards in terms of the costs and benefits of public and private standards in agri-food chains. On the one hand, standards can lead to the market exclusion of some producers, but producers on the other hand may also reap benefits and create value when producing according to standards. The effects of standards on producers are an important focus of LEI research in the trade context, particularly with regard to developing and transition countries. LEI investigates how to facilitate the embeddedness of standards into the local context and business culture. Furthermore, LEI research is conducted on the measurability and likelihood of compliance with standards. Both private and civil society organizations experience a growing need to quantify the effects of the applications of standards. While standards and regulations aim at fostering and improving development, sustainability and trade, reliable evidence on the effects is difficult to obtain. For this LEI research has been developing impact assessment tools including indicators and models for measurement.
Publications
De Bakker, E., Backus, G. B. C., Selnes, T., Meeusen, M., Ingenbleek, P. and van Wagenberg, C. (2008): Nieuwe rollen, nieuwe kansen? Een programmeringsstudie voor toezicht op controle in het agro-food complex. LEI Rapport 6.07.08, Den Haag.
Baltussen, W. H. M., Oosterkamp, E. B., van Mil, E. M. and G. Hagelaar (2008): Kansen en belemmeringen in duurzame ketenvorming; Primair bedrijf in ketens? LEI Rapport 2008-026, Den Haag.
Van Wijk, J., Danse. M. G. and Van Tulder, R. (2008): Qualities of quality standards, The likelihood of compliance with sustainability standards in the retail. Paper contribution, International Conference on Management in AgriFood Chains and Networks, 28.–30. May, Wageningen University.
Danse, M. G. and Vellema, S. (2007): Small scale farmer access to international agro-food chains: a “Base of the Pyramid” reflection on the need of social embedded innovation in the coffee and flower sector, Greener Management International, Issue 51, pp. 39 - 52.
Joosten, F. and D. Eaton (2007): Public sector roles in agri-food chains – regulatory strategies and functions in food safety, corporate social responsibility and seed sector development, Markets, Chains and Sustainable Development Strategy & Policy paper 1, Den Haag : WUR.
Vellema, S. R. and van der Valk, O. M. C. (2006): Quality control in cross-border agro-based supply chains: Modes of regulation in coffee, cocoa, bananas, palm oil, timber and aquaculture, LEI Rapport 4.06.03, Den Haag.
Jansen, K. and Vellema, S. (eds.) (2004): Agribusiness and Society: Corporate Responses to Environmentalism, Market Opportunities and Public regulation, London: Zed books.
Danse, M. G. and Wolters, T. (2001): Implementing ISO 14031 in support of the production of sustainable coffee. Paper presentation, Environmental Management Accountant Network (EMAN) Conference, 11.-12. February 2002, Cheltenham/England.
LEI research on standards and consumers/society as a whole typically focuses on the Netherlands, but the international trade perspective is also captured in so far as agri-food markets are global and the consumers’ demand for agri-food products influence international trade. Standards and regulations in general target the concerns of consumers and society associated with agri-food products and their production. Societal concerns relate to food safety as well as ecological (e.g. environmental aspects, biodiversity) and social issues (e.g. labour conditions, animal welfare) and pertain to domestic and foreign products alike. LEI captures food safety in more technical and natural science-related research. For example, risk assessment methods are applied to determine the risks of domestic and imported agri-food products for human, animal and plant health.
Furthermore, LEI conducts costs-benefit analyses of different measures that both governments and the private sector may use to reduce food safety risks. While food safety standards are usually not communicated to consumers, standards for food quality aspects beyond safety may be communicated via labels. Food quality aspects beyond safety constitute an increasingly important research area, and LEI investigates the consumers’ perception of food quality characteristics (e.g. animal welfare), their purchasing behaviour and willingness-to-pay for food quality, which gives information on the value and thus benefit of respective standards in monetary terms. While useful for producers’ product differentiation and marketing strategies, such information can help policy-makers in designing, introducing and changing standards by both tightening and lowering requirements or finding agreements on dealing with different requirements in international agri-food trade.
Publications
Ingenbleek, P. T. M., Immink, V. M. and Mooren, M. A. M. (2008): Institutionele inbedding van de dierenwelzijnsmonitor; Verkenningen van wie, wat en hoe. LEI Rapport 2008-053, Den Haag.
Vogelzang, T.A., de Winter, M.A., Ingenbleek P. and Immink, V. (2008): ‘De prijs is onredelijk'; Over de verwaarding van duurzaamheid in de biologische zuivelsector. LEI Rapport 2008-007, Den Haag.
Achterbosch, T. J. (2007): Consumer health hazards in international food trade, LEI Rapport 6.07.14, Den Haag.
Ingenbleek, P., Binnekamp M. and H. van Trijp (2006): Betalen voor dierenwelzijn; Barrières en oplossingsrichtingen in consumentenmarkten en business-to-business markten, LEI Rapport 5.06.02, Den Haag.
Ingenbleek, P. T. M., Binnekamp, M., van Trijp, J. C. M. and de Vlieger, J. J. (2006): Dierenwelzijn in de markt; Een drieluik van consumenten, retailers en belangenorganisaties in Europa, LEI Rapport 5.04.11, Den Haag.
Horne, P. L. M. van, Oosterkamp, E. B., Hoste, R., Puister. L. F. and Backus, G. B. C. (2006): Herkomstaanduiding van vlees: nationaal of Europees? LEI Rapport 6.06.13, Den Haag.
Ingenbleek, P. T. M., Backus, G. B. C., Binnekamp, M. H. A., Bondt, N., Goddijn, S. T. and Oosterkamp, E. B. (2006): Dierenwelzijn in transitie; Thema’s rond de implementatie van de dierenwelzijnsindex. LEI Rapport 5.06.04, Den Haag.
Beekman, V., van den Berg, J. and van der Roest, J. (2003): The precautionary principle as a guideline for decision-making about food safety in an international (trade) context. In: Rainelli, P. (ed.): Ethics as a dimension of agri-food policy. Proceedings EurSafe 2003. INRA, Toulouse, pp: 14-17.
Beekman, V., van der Roest, J. and van den Berg, J. (2003): The precautionary principle in international food safety policy-making; Theoretical framework and empirical case studies, Rikilt report 2003 001, Wageningen.
Courville, S. and Danse, M. G. (2002): Integrating Social Indicators into Environmental Management Systems: Experiences from the Coffee Sector in Costa Rica. Paper presentation, 10th Greening of Industry Network (GIN) Conference, 23.-26. June 2002, Goteborg/Sweden.